Compliance and Treatment Outcomes of Various Regimens for Trichomoniasis in Trinidad and Tobago.

Trichomoniasis is the most common non-viral sexually transmitted disease (STD) globally and yet is not a reportable disease. Trichomonas vaginalis is an important source of reproductive morbidity and may increase risk of acquisition and transmission of human immunodeficiency viruses (HIV). The World Health Organization (WHO) and the Control Disease Center (CDC) recommend various regimens of nitroimidazole s for treatment. The common nitroimidazoles used for trichomoniasis are metronidazole and tinidazole, which vary in their cost, efficacy, and side effect profile. It is relevant to study these factors for better management of the patients. This study aimed to compare and study the efficacy, compliance of various treatment regimens, their outcomes, and side-effects for trichomoniasis, among STI clinic attendees in Trinidad. A clinical trial study was designed, and after obtaining the informed consent, a routine clinical examination was conducted and the swabs for trichomoniasis tests were collected for diagnosis from the 692 participants. Out of 692 participants, 82 patients with positive diagnosis of Trichomonas infection were treated according to the patient's choice, using different drug regimens. Compliance to treatment, side effects, and outcome were evaluated. The prevalence of trichomoniasis in the population attending our STI clinic is 11.9% and prevalence of HIV is 9%. Of the total 82 participants for the treatment, 80% were females; nearly 90% of the patients belonged to age group 15-45 years, and over 60% were below 30 years. Among those diagnosed for Trichomonas vaginalis, 14.6% had coexistent HIV infection. The compliance with respect to single dose treatment was significantly better than the long-duration oral regimen and has a significant relation with side effects of the treatment. The outcome is generally better and comparable and shows no significant difference between different treatment regimens used in the study. Metronidazole and tinidazole are commonly used drugs in various regimens. Compliance is better with those treated with tinidazole and metronidazole single dose than with other groups. Outcome is comparable between these regimens, especially when combined with other important factors like abstinence and treatment of the partners. The treatment regimens mainly differed in the compliance side effects profile and duration of therapy, which suggests that to improve the compliance of the drugs with fewer side effects, short course regimen would be a preferred choice.

Prevalence, clinical features, and diagnosis of Trichomonas vaginalis among female STI clinic attendees in Trinidad.

BACKGROUND: Trichomonas vaginalis (TV) is one of the most common pathogens causing sexually transmitted infections (STIs) in both men and women. Since there are no accurate prevalence data available on TV infection among women for Trinidad and Tobago and in the Caribbean region, there is a great need for research to study the dynamics of the infection and its transmission. OBJECTIVES: To determine the prevalence and diagnose TV infection in women attending the STI clinic and to provide recommendations for control and prevention of trichomoniasis in the community. STUDY DESIGN: A cross-sectional study was designed after obtaining the informed consent. Following a routine clinical examination, vaginal swabs were collected - one for wet mount preparation, one for InPouch culture, and other two for OSOM rapid test/and fluorescent antibody testing. Cotton swabs and Dacron swabs were used for testing. RESULTS: A prevalence of 16% of trichomoniasis out of 422 females was recorded. In all, 65 (65%) were in the age range of 15-29 years and peak of 30% in the age group of 20-24 years. Vaginal discharge was a common complaint (83%); 75.6% had foul odor and only 9.8% had typical fishy odor. The majority of them (87%) had whitish-yellow colored discharge. CONCLUSION: Prevalence of trichomoniasis is significant in the female population attending STI clinic. Targeting high-risk age group between 15 and 29 years for control and prevention would be beneficial. Prompt and accurate diagnosis using appropriate laboratory test is recommended.

The detection of mupirocin resistance and the distribution of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus at the University Hospital of the West Indies, Jamaica.

OBJECTIVES: The objectives of this study were to determine the susceptibility of Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) isolates to Mupirocin and other antimicrobial agents and to record the prevalence and distribution of this organism at the University Hospital of the West Indies (UHWI). METHODS: MRSA isolates collected between January 1, 2008 and December 31, 2008, were tested for low and high level resistance to Mupirocin. Susceptibility testing to other antibiotics including cotrimoxazole, minocycline, tetracycline, clindamycin, erythromycin, gentamicin and vancomycin was also done. Laboratory records for all patients from whom MRSA was recovered were reviewed and data on type and source of isolates, clinical diagnosis, history of previous hospitalization and use of mupirocin were extracted. In addition, the laboratory records for 2004 and 2005 were also reviewed to determine prevalence during these periods. RESULTS: Seven per cent of Staphylococcus aureus isolates were resistant to methicillin (MRSA) and of these, 30% and 24% showed low level and high level resistance to mupirocin, respectively. Ninety-four per cent of MRSA strains were resistant to erythromycin while 52% showed resistance to clindamycin. Resistance to tetracycline, co-trimoxazole and minocycline was 27%, 12% and 6%, respectively, while about one-third of the isolates were resistant to gentamicin. There was no resistance to vancomycin. More than half (58%) of the isolates were from skin and soft tissue specimens while isolates from respiratory and urinary tracts and the bloodstream accounted for 19%, 13% and 4%, respectively. There has been a steady increase in prevalence from 4% in 2004 to 5% in 2007 and 7% in 2008. CONCLUSION: Resistance of MRSA to mupirocin appears to be an emerging problem at the UHWI and must be monitored carefully. There is also significant resistance to commonly used antimicrobial agents and strict adherence to antibiotic policy is required to preserve the usefulness of these agents.

A comparison of antimicrobial susceptibility profile of urinary pathogens for the years, 1999 and 2003.

Urinary tract infection is a common condition worldwide; responsible for significant morbidity in both hospitalized and community patients. The laboratory records, for microbial isolates of infected urine and their susceptibility profiles for the years 1999 and 2003 were retrospectively reviewed and compared. In 2003, there was a significant decline in recovery ofCitrobacter spp compared to 1999. Conversely, the proportion of K pneumoniae, E coli and Enterococci increased dramatically in 2003, in both practices. For Proteus vulgaris and Proteus mirabilis, rates of isolation were increased in 2003, in hospital practice and community practice, respectively. Significant changes in antimicrobial susceptibility were also evident. A greater proportion of isolates from both practices were resistant to ampicillin, amoxicillin-clavulanic acid, cefuroxime, ceftazidime and cotrimoxazole in 2003 when compared to 1999. With respect to E coli, there were significant increases in prevalence of resistance to cefuroxime and amoxicillin-clavulanic acid. The overall resistance rate for norfloxacin remained relatively low and was unchanged for E coli. Continued surveillance of uropathogen resistance trends is important and this information should be communicated to clinicians. The feasibility of using the fluoroquinolones as a first line of therapy in urinary tract infection should be considered.

A comparison of antimicrobial susceptibility profile of urinary pathogens for the years, 1999 and 2003 / Una comparación del perfil de susceptibilidad antimicrobiana de los patógenos urinarios en los Años 1999 y 2003

Urinary tract infection is a common condition worldwide; responsible for significant morbidity in both hospitalized and community patients. The laboratory records, for microbial isolates of infected urine and their susceptibility profiles for the years 1999 and 2003 were retrospectively reviewed and compared. In 2003, there was a significant decline in recovery ofCitrobacter spp compared to 1999. Conversely, the proportion of K pneumoniae, E coli and Enterococci increased dramatically in 2003, in both practices. For Proteus vulgaris and Proteus mirabilis, rates of isolation were increased in 2003, in hospital practice and community practice, respectively. Significant changes in antimicrobial susceptibility were also evident. A greater proportion of isolates from both practices were resistant to ampicillin, amoxicillin-clavulanic acid, cefuroxime, ceftazidime and cotrimoxazole in 2003 when compared to 1999. With respect to E coli, there were significant increases in prevalence of resistance to cefuroxime and amoxicillin-clavulanic acid. The overall resistance rate for norfloxacin remained relatively low and was unchanged for E coli. Continued surveillance of uropathogen resistance trends is important and this information should be communicated to clinicians. The feasibility of using the fluoroquinolones as a first line of therapy in urinary tract infection should be considered.

La infección del tracto urinario es una condición común a nivel mundial. Esa condición es significativamente responsable de la morbilidad, tanto en los pacientes hospitalizados como en los no hospitalizados. Los datos de laboratorio en relación con los aislados microbianos de la orina infectada y sus perfiles de susceptibilidad en los años 1999 y 2003, fueron revisados y comparados de manera retrospectiva. En 2003, se produjo un descenso significativo de la recuperación de infecciones por Citrobacter spp, en comparación con 1999. En contraste con ello, la proporción de K pneumoniae, E coli y Enterococci en ambas prácticas, aumentó dramáticamente en 2003. En el caso de Proteus vulgaris y Proteus mirabilis, las tasas de aislamiento aumentaron en el año 2003 en la práctica médica hospitalaria y comunitaria respectivamente. También aquí se hicieron evidentes cambios significativos en la susceptibilidad antimicrobiana. Una proporción mayor de aislados de ambas prácticas resultó ser resistente a la ampicilina, la combinación amoxicilina/ácido clavulánico, la ceftazidima y el cotrimoxazol en 2003, en comparación con 1999. Con respecto al E coli, hubo aumentos significativos en la prevalencia de la resistencia a la cefuroxima y la asociación amoxicilina/ácido clavulánico La tasa de resistencia general frente a la norfloxacina permaneció relativamente baja y no presentó variaciones frente al E coli. La vigilancia permanente de las tendencias de la resistencia a los patógenos es importante, y la investigación así obtenida, debe ser comunicada a los clínicos. Debe considerarse la factibilidad de usar fluoroquinolonas como terapia de primera línea.

Antimicrobial susceptibility patterns of urinary pathogens in Trinidad, 1996-1999.

The prevalence of antimicrobial resistance among urinary pathogens has been increasing worldwide. Laboratory diagnosed urinary tract infections were retrospectively evaluated for the years 1996 through 1999, to document the common pathogens and their changing antimicrobial profiles. From 14,853 hospital specimens, an isolation rate of 6.1% was found; and from 5330 community specimens, the isolation rate was 27.9%. E. coli was the predominant cause of urinary tract infections in both hospital and community practices. The rate of isolation of the other pathogens was relatively stable except for citrobacter species, which increased from 1.3% in 1996 to 20.1% in 1999 (p < 0.001) among community isolates. Significant changes in the susceptibility patterns of uropathogens also were observed. E. coli strains from hospitals were significantly more resistant to cefuroxime than community strains (p < 0.001), while resistance to ampicillin and nalidixic acid was high in both practices. No substantial changes in susceptibility to gentamicin and tetracycline were noticed during the four-year period compared to the 99% resistance to tetracycline in 1995. In relation to nitrofurantoin, no significant changes were noted in both practices where resistant rates remained low, but susceptibility to augmentin showed much improvement among all isolates, including E. coli. Urinary isolates were more commonly recovered from the paediatric age group (1-10 years) and those older than 50 years of age, and males were the predominant gender in both age groups. The study showed that the antibiotics useful in the treatment of UTI in decreasing order of effectiveness in community practice were gentamicin, norfloxacin, nitrofurantoin and cefuroxime. For nosocomial UTI, the drugs most effective include norfloxacin, nitrofurantoin, gentamicin, co-trimoxazole and amoxicillin-clavulanic acid.

Antimicrobial susceptibility patterns of urinary pathogens in Trinidad, 1996-1999

The prevalence of antimicrobial resistance among urinary pathogens has been increasing worldwide. Laboratory diagnosed urinary tract infections were retrospectively evaluated for the years 1996 through 1999, to document the common pathogens and their changing antimicrobial profiles. From 14,853 hospital specimens, an isolation rate of 6.1% was found; and from 5330 community specimens, the isolation rate was 27.9%. E. coli was the predominant cause of urinary tract infections in both hospital and community practices. The rate of isolation of the other pathogens was relatively stable except for citrobacter species, which increased from 1.3% in 1996 to 20.1% in 1999 (p < 0.001) among community isolates. Significant changes in the susceptibility patterns of uropathogens also were observed. E. coli strains from hospitals were significantly more resistant to cefuroxime than community strains (p < 0.001), while resistance to ampicillin and nalidixic acid was high in both practices. No substantial changes in susceptibility to gentamicin and tetracycline were noticed during the four-year period compared to the 99% resistance to tetracycline in 1995. In relation to nitrofurantoin, no significant changes were noted in both practices where resistant rates remained low, but susceptibility to augmentin showed much improvement among all isolates, including E. coli. Urinary isolates were more commonly recovered from the paediatric age group (1-10 years) and those older than 50 years of age, and males were the predominant gender in both age groups. The study showed that the antibiotics useful in the treatment of UTI in decreasing order of effectiveness in community practice were gentamicin, norfloxacin, nitrofurantoin and cefuroxime. For nosocomial UTI, the drugs most effective include norfloxacin, nitrofurantoin, gentamicin, co-trimoxazole and amoxicillin-clavulanic acid.

Nosocomial infections in an intensive care unit in a private hospital.

The nosocomial infection rate in the intensive care unit (ICU) of a private hospital was assessed during an 18-month survey. From 629 admissions to the ICU, 139 hospital-acquired infections were identified. The rate was 22.1% compared to the overall nosocomial infection rate of 15.3% for the entire hospital. In the ICU, the main infections occurred in the respiratory tract, 41 (29.5%), followed by surgical wounds, 35 (25.2%), urinary tract, 28 (20.1%) and the blood stream, 24 (17.3%). From 165 bacterial isolates, 80% of isolates were gram-negative rods, with P aeruginosa, 48 (36.6%), being the predominant gram-negative isolate followed by Klebsiella pneumoniae, 27 (20.6%), and Enterobacter sp, 22 (16.8%). The main gram-positive isolates were S aureus, 23 (41.8%), coagulase-negative Staphylococci, 17 (30.9%), and Enterococci, 11 (20.0%). Of the 23 S aureus strains, 15 (65.2%) were methicillin-resistant (MRSA), (8 MRSA were from surgical wounds, 5 from the respiratory tract and 2 from infected urine). Only 2 of the 17 (11.8%) coagulase-negative staphylococci were methicillin-resistant, and both were isolated from wounds. Resistance to ampicillin and augmentin (amoxicillin-clavulanic acid) was high, 81.9% and 55.4%, respectively. Gentamicin, aztreonam, piperacillin and piperacillin-tazobactam showed resistance rates of less than 15%. Infection control measures aimed at reducing nosocomial infections at the hospital are often frustrated by apathy of hospital administrators who apparently are insensitive to the high nosocomial infection rate. Effort by the infection control team through seminars, lectures and newsletters have begun to show improvements in attitude and awareness of staff to infection control and preventative measures within the institution.

Nosocomial infections in an intensive care unit in a private hospital

The nosocomial infection rate in the intensive care unit (ICU) of a private hospital was assessed during an 18-month survey. From 629 admissions to the ICU, 139 hospital-acquired infections were identified. The rate was 22.1 compared to the overall nosocomial infection rate of 15.3 for the entire hospital. In the ICU, the main infections occurred in the respiratory tract, 41 (29.5), followed by surgical wounds, 35 (25.2), urinary tract, 28 (20.1) and the blood stream, 24 (17.3). From 165 bacterial isolates, 80 of isolates were gram-negative rods, with P aeruginosa, 48 (36.6), being the predominant gram-negative isolate followed by Klebsiella pneumoniae, 27 (20.6), and Enterobacter sp, 22 (16.8). The main gram-positive isolates were S aureus, 23 (41.8), coagulase-negative Staphylococci, 17 (30.9), and Enterococci, 11 (20.0). Of the 23 S aureus strains, 15 (65.2) were methicillin-resistant (MRSA), (8 MRSA were from surgical wounds, 5 from the respiratory tract and 2 from infected urine). Only 2 of the 17 (11.8) coagulase-negative staphylococci were methicillin-resistant, and both were isolated from wounds. Resistance to ampicillin and augmentin (amoxicillin-clavulanic acid) was high, 81.9 and 55.4, respectively. Gentamicin, aztreonam, piperacillin and piperacillin-tazobactam showed resistance rates of less than 15. Infection control measures aimed at reducing nosocomial infections at the hospital are often frustrated by apathy of hospital administrators who apparently are insensitive to the high nosocomial infection rate. Effort by the infection control team through seminars, lectures and newsletters have begun to show improvements in attitude and awareness of staff to infection control and preventative measures within the institution.

Susceptibility patterns and serotypes of non-typhoidal salmonella in Trinidad.

OBJECTIVE: To study the serotype distribution of non-typhoidal salmonella isolated from clinical specimens and to evaluate their susceptibility patterns to the most commonly prescribed antimicrobial agents used in this region. METHODS: A retrospective study during the period 1993 1999 was carried out at the Eric Williams Medical Sciences Complex Microbiology Laboratory, a teaching hospital in the northwestern part of Trinidad. Strains of non-typhoidal salmonella were serogrouped with polyvalent Salmonella O antiserum and sent to the local Public Health Laboratory for confirmation and further serotyping. RESULTS: A total of 412 strains of non-typhoidal salmonella were serotyped. Of the 13 serotypes, Salmonella enteritidis was the most prevalent 57%, followed by Salmonella typhimurium, 25%, Salmonella virchow 5% and Salmonella heidelberg, 4%. Three hundred and sixty-two (87.5%) non-typhoidal salmonella were isolated from stool, 38 (9%) from blood, 8 (2%) from urine and 4 about 1% from infected wounds. Of the 13 serotypes only Salmonella enteritidis, Salmonella typhimurium, Salmonella virchow and Salmonella heidelberg were simultaneously isolated from blood and stool. One serotype, Salmonella aberdeen, was encountered for the first time in 1993. All isolates were fully sensitive to chloramphenicol, gentamicin, cefuroxime and ceftrioxone. Resistance to ampicillin, augmentin and co-trimoxazole was less than 4%. One third of all non-typhoidal salmonella isolates were resistant to tetracyclines. CONCLUSION: The most prevalent serotypes were Salmonella enteritidis and Salmonella typhimurium which accounted for 82% of all isolates. The prevalence of resistance of non-typhoidal salmonella to antibiotics was very low (5%). Therefore, due to this low prevalence of resistance, we did not provide details of resistance in relation to serotype. However, it was observed that of the 137 non-typhoidal salmonella resistant to tetracycline, more than 80% were Salmonella enteritidis and Salmonella typhimurium strains. Of the 9 antibiotics, tetracycline was the only drug to which one-third of the non-typhoidal salmonella were resistant. Due to the risk of resistance continued surveillance of susceptibility patterns of non-typhoidal salmonella to antibiotics must be maintained and encouraged.

Bacteriuria in the elderly population in a developing country.

Among 1470 elderly hospitalized and nonhospitalized people, 566 cases of bacteriuria were identified. There were 663 men (41.5% with bacteriuria) and 807 women (36.0% with bacteriuria). The overall prevalence of bacteriuria was 38.5%. More than 90% of the isolates were gram-negative organisms with Proteus species being the predominant pathogen among men, with 68.1% seen among inpatients. Escherichia coli was the main pathogen in women, with 62.0% recovered from inpatients. Catheterization was seen most commonly among non-hospitalized males with outflow obstruction. Catheter care in this population is often performed at home by these men who either refuse prostate surgery, are not fit for surgery, or are awaiting surgery. Polymicrobic bacteriuria was identified more frequently (approximately 60%) among the catheterized group. Of the 440 gram-negative bacilli recovered as single organisms, 352 (80.0%) were resistant to ampicillin, cephalothin, and tetracycline, whereas 229 (52.0%) were resistant to co-trimoxazole. The most effective antibiotics (in increasing order of sensitivity; 80% - 100%) were augmentin, nalidixic acid, cefuroxime, gentomicin, and ciprofloxacin. No mortality due to bacteremia complicated by bacteriuria was observed during the study period.

Bacteriuria in the elderly population in a developing country

Among 1470 elderly hospitalized and nonhospitalized people, 566 cases of bacteriuria were identified. There were 663 men (41.5% with bacteriuria) and 807 women (36.0% with bacteriuria). The overall prevalence of bacteriuria was 38.5%. More than 90% of the isolates were gram-negative organisms with Proteus species being the predominant pathogen among men, with 68.1% seen among inpatients. Escherichia coli was the main pathogen in women, with 62.0% recovered from inpatients. Catheterization was seen most commonly among non-hospitalized males with outflow obstruction. Catheter care in this population is often performed at home by these men who either refuse prostate surgery, are not fit for surgery, or are awaiting surgery. Polymicrobic bacteriuria was identified more frequently (approximately 60%) among the catheterized group. Of the 440 gram-negative bacilli recovered as single organisms, 352 (80.0%) were resistant to ampicillin, cephalothin, and tetracycline, whereas 229 (52.0%) were resistant to co-trimoxazole. The most effective antibiotics (in increasing order of sensitivity; 80% - 100%) were augmentin, nalidixic acid, cefuroxime, gentomicin, and ciprofloxacin. No mortality due to bacteremia complicated by bacteriuria was observed during the study period.

Prevalence of resistance to antimicrobials of Escherichia coli isolates from clinical sources at a private hospital in Trinidad.

Antimicrobial susceptibility patterns of strains of Escherichia coli isolated between 1994 and 1998 were studied. Of the 1,283 strains examined, 75% were recovered from urine, 8.7% from wounds, 3.2% from blood, 2.6% from pus, and 10.5% from other sources. Isolates from inpatients and outpatients accounted for 46.1% and 53.9%, respectively. Gentamicin and nalidixic acid showed the greatest efficacy against isolates from both inpatients and outpatients, revealing a >90% sensitivity. Drugs with the lowest efficacies were ampicillin and amoxicillin-clavulanic acid, which showed a >45% resistance. Tetracycline showed a significant decline in resistance from 1994 to 1998 among strains from both inpatients and outpatients (P < 0.001). This decline may be related to a policy of restrictive antibiotic reporting by the Microbiology Laboratory and seminars for general practitioners, subsequent to an island-wide survey an antibiotic resistance. A similar pattern of declining resistance was also observed for cefuroxime. E. coli sensitivity to co-trimoxazole was relatively stable during the study period. Although the overall prevalence of resistance among E. coli strains is relatively low, on-going surveillance of bacterial resistance must continue. The microbial antibiogram can provide general practitioners and clinicians with data essential for optimum empiric choices. Further, the introduction of a policy of restrictive reporting may act "synergistically" with the education of doctors on resistance patterns, to effect island-wide reduction of antimicrobial resistance.

Urinary tract infections in general practice in a rural community in South Trinidad.

OBJECTIVE: A prospective study was carried out at a General Practice in South Trinidad, to assess the sensitivity profiles of urinary isolates in this remote rural community. METHODS: Quantitative bacteriologic cultures were performed according to standard procedures. Identification of isolates was based on gram reaction, morphology and biochemical reactions. Susceptibility testing was carried out using commonly prescribed antimicrobials for the treatment of urinary tract infections. RESULTS: From 779 urine specimens, 49% were culture positive for counts >105 organisms per ml. Three hundred and eighteen were aged 21 years and above and 85.5% of these were females. The lowest incidence of urinary tract infections, 8%, was seen among the 13-20 year old age group. Most males above 50 years had indwelling urethral catheters due to prostatic disease. Escherichia coli was the predominant isolate, 71%, followed by Proteus mirabilis, 9%, and Klebsiella pneumoniae, 7%. All urinary tract infections isolates were fully sensitive to ofloxacin and >96% (except for Citrobacter species, 63%) were sensitive to cefuroxime. Apart from Enterococcus faecalis and Staphylococcus saprophyticus, the overall sensitivity to ampicillin by all isolates was <33%. The prevalence of multi-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa in community-acquired urinary tract infections is increasing. All Pseudomonas aeruginosa were fully sensitive to gentamicin and ofloxacin. CONCLUSION: The high frequency of single and multiple antibiotic resistances in this rural community should cause alarm. The ease of procuring antibiotics in these areas without a prescription can result in uncontrolled self-medication. Also, the absence of antibiotic prescribing policies and inadequate information on patterns of bacterial resistance, may all contribute to the emergence of resistant strains.

Neonatal sepsis and mortality in a regional hospital in Trinidad: aetiology and risk factors.

A total of 132 neonatal deaths among 627 infants admitted to the neonatal ward of the San Fernando General Hospital, Trinidad over a 2-year period were reviewed. The most common cause of death was prematurity (43.9%). Infection was the second most common cause (21.2%). Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus were the most frequently isolated organisms (43%). The major drugs used empirically in suspected cases of sepsis were ampicillin or ceftazidime plus gentamicin. About 85% of S. aureus were resistant to ampicillin, and P. aeruginosa resistance to ceftazidime and gentamicin was 76.7% and 72.1%, respectively. Significant risk factors in maternal history were infrequent antenatal care and prolonged rupture of membranes. The incidence of infection among low birthweight infants was 85.6%. Early-onset sepsis (86.4%) seemed to have a nosocomial origin because of the type of pathogens seen. There is an urgent need to improve the staff-to-patient ratio in the neonatal unit and for staff to be constantly reminded to employ simple infection control practices such as proper hand-washing to reduce cross-infections.

Prevalence of resistance to antimicrobials of Escherichia coli isolates from clinical sources at a private hospital in Trinidad

Antimicrobial susceptibility patterns of strains of Escherichia coli isolated between 1994 and 1998 were studied. Of the 1,283 strains examined, 75% were recovered from urine, 8.7% from wounds, 3.2% from blood, 2.6% from pus, and 10.5% from other sources. Isolates from inpatients and outpatients accounted for 46.1% and 53.9%, respectively. Gentamicin and nalidixic acid showed the greatest efficacy against isolates from both inpatients and outpatients, revealing a >90% sensitivity. Drugs with the lowest efficacies were ampicillin and amoxicillin-clavulanic acid, which showed a >45% resistance. Tetracycline showed a significant decline in resistance from 1994 to 1998 among strains from both inpatients and outpatients (P < 0.001). This decline may be related to a policy of restrictive antibiotic reporting by the Microbiology Laboratory and seminars for general practitioners, subsequent to an island-wide survey an antibiotic resistance. A similar pattern of declining resistance was also observed for cefuroxime. E. coli sensitivity to co-trimoxazole was relatively stable during the study period. Although the overall prevalence of resistance among E. coli strains is relatively low, on-going surveillance of bacterial resistance must continue. The microbial antibiogram can provide general practitioners and clinicians with data essential for optimum empiric choices. Further, the introduction of a policy of restrictive reporting may act "synergistically" with the education of doctors on resistance patterns, to effect island-wide reduction of antimicrobial resistance.

Enterococcal urinary tract infections: eight years experience at a regional hospital in Trinidad, West Indies

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the prevalence of significant enterococcal isolates from urine and determine what factors are associated with the increased prevalence, with particular reference to antibiotic susceptibilities. METHODS: Retrospective analysis over an 8-year period of hospital laboratory records of urinary isolates of enterococci was done. Species were identified via colony morphology, growth in 6.5% sodium chloride and their ability to hydrolyze esculin in the presence of 40% bile salts. Susceptibility testing via the disc diffusion technique with 9 commonly used antibiotics was also done as defined by the National Committee for Clinical Laboratory Standards. RESULTS: From 39,881 urine specimens, 9116 (22.9%) were culture positive. Of this 9116, 1001 (11.0%) were enterococci, the 4th most common urinary isolate. E. coli was the most common (36.2%). Most enterococci were from pediatric patients (28.4%) and the urology unit (24.5%). All enterococci were fully sensitive to ampicillin and augmentin (amoxicillin-clavulanic acid). Sensitivity to gentamicin decreased significantly from 79% in 1990 to 58% in 1997 (P < 0.005). Sensitivity to the cephalosporins and nitrofuratoin were relatively stable, but sensitivity to nalidixic acid varied. No resistance to vancomycin was detected during the study, and no cases of bacteremia complicated bacteriuria were seen. CONCLUSION: Isolation of enterococci was relatively stable during the 8-year period, and all isolates were fully sensitive to the older beta-lactams, ampicillin, cefaclor and augmentin, but displayed varying degrees of multi-resistance to other commonly used urinary agents such as nalidixic acid and co-trimoxazole (trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole). Because of the emergence of multi-resistant enterococci in many countries, and the high cost of drugs in our society, it is imperative that vigilance be maintained in monitoring enterococcal infections in hospitals.

Knowledge and awareness of tuberculosis among pre-university students in Trinidad.

The purpose of the study was to determine the level of knowledge and attitudes among pre-university students in Trinidad and Tobago on the pre-disposing factors and prevention of tuberculosis and the management of persons with the disease. More than 90% (542 of 600) of participating students from nine secondary schools duly completed the self-administered questionnaires. Two-thirds of the students were girls (336) and the rest were boys (206). The ages of the participants ranged from 16-19 years and more than 82% of them belonged to the 17-18 year old age group. The least represented was the 19 year olds. The study showed that although 92.8% had heard of tuberculosis, overall knowledge about the disease was generally poor. The majority of students (77.5%) believed the disease could be prevented, but 10.3% knew of the BCG vaccine and only 11.1% knew about the Mantoux skin test. The study also demonstrated the need for renewed efforts in health education for the public, clarifying areas of misunderstandings about important and common diseases like tuberculosis, in developing countries.

Antimicrobial prescribing patterns at a rural hospital in Trinidad: evidence for intervention measures.

The antibiotic prescribing patterns on 527 case notes of discharged patients over a two-month period at a teaching hospital in southern Trinidad were retrospectively analyzed. Forty four percent of patients had received one or more antibiotics. The greatest exposure rate was on the orthopedic (79.4%), pediatric (70.8%), and obstetric/gynecology (64%) services. Genital tract infections, urinary tract infections, skin/ soft tissue infections and lower respiratory tract infections were the commonest indications for antibiotic prescription. The antibiotics most frequently prescribed were ampicillin (53.4%), chloramphenicol (16.5%) and gentamicin (11.3%). Ninety-six (41.0%) patients were described as being allergic to penicillin, and of these, 5 received ampicillin and 3 received cefaclor. Poor communication and lack of confidence in laboratory technician expertise were identified as possible cofactors partly responsible for most inappropriate antibiotic use in the hospital. The study also revealed that prevailing prescribing patterns at the SFGH might be improved through refresher training of doctors in clinical microbiology and the identification of clinical areas for which targeted antibiotic intervention may be warranted.